فصلنامه جامعه شناسی کاربردی
سال سی و دوم شماره 4 (پیاپی 84، زمستان 1400)

From the perspective of cultural studies, tolerance as a social construct is a way to avoid conflicts between people. Tolerance as a constructed concept refers to how people perceive, interpret, and experience it in everyday life. Tolerance arises from structural conditions, context, social status, discourses, and the worlds of urban life. Tolerance is considered an important issue in different societies, cultures, and political systems. In the present study, the authors attempted to investigate the concept of tolerance, its process and mechanisms, its requirements and forms in the context of everyday urban life. The following research question was posed: How do people in the context of everyday urban life understand and interpret the concept of tolerance as a meaningful social action and experience?  

The research method of the study is grounded theory. The research questions focus on the interaction between people or the interaction of them with specific fields as well as processes, which are usually not possible to answer quantitatively.Among the different branches of grounded theory, according to the fluidity of the research topic and the gender, variety, and data, the postmodern branch of grounded theory was used.For sampling, according to the research approach and problem and based on the experimental and theoretical literature, we decided to adopt prototypes from people who, according to their job, their living situation and relationship need to show tolerance the most in their daily lives as citizens. Then, other samples were selected during the research process based on the theoretical needs of the researchers.

Analysis of the data using Clark's position analysis method (the postmodern branch of grounded theory) shows that tolerance-based action is a fluid and scaled concept consisting of three dimensions: passive tolerance or surrender, active tolerance, and intolerance. These dimensions come together under the mechanism of tolerance-making. The results also show that the concept of tolerance (based on the two elements of consciousness and agency), is included in surrender, tolerance, and intolerance dimensions. Finally, ‘ambiguous toleration’ is considered a central phenomenon of research.People who experience being in a chaotic and uncertain life in Tehran, living in an atmosphere full of individualism, ontological insecurity, facing feelings of turmoil, apprehension, anxiety, experiencing rapid change, cultural and economic gaps, facing identity crises, urban crises, and rapid socio-cultural changes make constant choices in their orientations toward a tolerance-based approach. In the way of expressing mentalities and actions along with exaggerating the moral concepts of the society such as tolerance, one tries to represent the hidden mentalities and patterns  produced and reproduced by citizens in everyday urban life. Tolerance is a concept manifested in a distorted way due to various factors and representations, with the elements of submission and failure, despair, and frustration. The dualism of power-weakness, urban space and urban cultures, communication and understanding, maintaining peace, avoiding conflicts, commitment and the concept of love, utility, boundaries of action, reformism, mistrust, social change, and values are factors and motives for tolerance-based actions in everyday urban life.  The gender, social class, historical memory, socialization, beliefs and personalities, cultural policy and representational crisis, economic disruptions, positioning, revenge and justice, and self-censorship interaction on resentment and isolation are the main categories in this study.

Today, football is one of the important elements in the process of socialization of social actors, especially young people; any weakness in this area can provide the ground for deviant behaviors, especially violence and aggression. Due to the prevalence of football and its wider field compared to other sports activities that bring a large number of spectators during the matches, this sport has faced more violent behavior of fans and spectators among various sports activities. Meanwhile, the extent, severity, and damage caused by ethnic demands have made ethnic issues an important issue at the level of sports, society, and even the world. The sport of football, with the competitive atmosphere it creates, encourages the formation and demarcation of rival groups, and its continuation over time strengthens and perpetuates existing polarizations. In this regard, the Tractor Club is a sports club popular and attractive to its fans and has become a social and nationalist phenomenon for them. Some of the team's fans also strongly insist on their ethnic identity, and the team's games have implicitly become a scene of protest and ethnic demands. Therefore, the growing tendency towards football, attention to the inherent characteristics of this sport, and the fact that a football team can be a symbol of a group or ethnic group influence and direct the behavior of its fans. In this regard, the present study aimed to examine the sociological relationship between the ethnic identity and aggression among supporters of the Tabriz Tractor Football Team. The theoretical framework for the research is based on the Birmingham School of Cultural Studies, the Leicester School, and the Axel Honneth Recognition Theory.  

The research method of this study is survey. The statistical population includes all the fans of the football team of Traktorsazi present in Yadegaramam Stadium in Tabriz, numbering 70,000 people, of which 400 people were selected based on Cochran's statistical formula by the purposive sampling method. A researcher-made questionnaire was used to collect data. Content validity of structural type and structural validity were used to estimate the validity of the scales, and Cronbach's alpha technique was used to measure the reliability of the measuring instruments. SPSS software was used to analyze the data. 

The theoretical and field findings of the present study confirm that ethnic identity as an important factor in the occurrence of aggressive behaviors of fans of the tractor manufacturing football team has a significant effect. In this regard, the results of the correlation between the ethnic identity variable and fan aggression showed a linear relationship between all components of ethnic identity (interest in Turkish language and literature, ethnic affiliation, interest in Turkish art and music) and aggressive components (psychological and physical aggression) in terms of aggression. The hypotheses are confirmed and the type of relationship is positive and direct. Also, the results of multivariate regression analysis indicate that the variables present in the regression model could explain 37.9% of the dependent variable changes. According to Axel Hunt's theory, it can be acknowledged that social actors are able to understand the degree of social exclusion and humiliation resulting from a lack of recognition by existing structures. In this regard, institutional and structural actions to delay the recognition and disruption and denial of the recognition of culture and art, literature, and especially language, as manifestations and main components of the ethnic identity of the actors (fans of the tractor manufacturing team) may lead to aggression and the use of violent tools by fans to prevent the reproduction of their negligence and denial of identity or rejection through such behaviors. A look at the statistics of the spectators of the Tabriz Tractor Manufacturing Team, which are in fact the most basic material and spiritual assets of this team, requires that this very valuable potential for the province's football be used properly by the relevant authorities. The presence of large and enthusiastic spectators in the matches of the tractor manufacturing team is a potential capital that, if accompanied by proper management, can become an opportunity with positive effects on managers, spectators, the professional football league, and the sports community. Accordingly, providing a suitable context for preserving and strengthening and, in Hunt's words, recognizing the language, music, literature, art, culture, history, etc. of all ethnic groups marginalized by relevant institutions, institutions, and systems seems more and more necessary to reduce and prevent this social harm.

Coronavirus is a large family of viruses that cause respiratory infections (Jiang et al., 2020). The virus, previously unknown, was found in a significant number of patients in the city of Wuhan, China (Najo et al., 2020). It swept across countries’ borders so quickly that on April 1, 2020, 360783 cases of the virus were found in 205 countries of the world (Kate Louis et al., 2021). In Iran, the virus soon swept through the borders of the provinces and cities revealing itself as a multi-dimensional problem. One of the groups that have suffered double dealing with the virus was nurses working in hospitals. Nurses in the Khuzestan province were also experiencing a battle with the Coronavirus. This experience caused many sufferings. Because of the unknown nature of the Coronavirus, at the early spread of the virus, the nurses, like other groups of people, felt threatened with the disease. On the other hand, they felt morally and organizationally obliged to do their job well, and this made them continue to live in the environment and serve the patients suffering from the virus, despite their fear and panic. This was the most important reason for investigating the mentioned issue. The present study used the interpretive approach with the aim of understanding the common experiences of patients from the Coronavirus and the nurses involved in the infectious and isolated sections at Razi Hospital in Ahvaz. The present study explores the understanding of the experiences of individuals involved with the corona, especially the nurses of this sector and patients who have been infected with the virus and hospitalized. Based on the results of this study, the challenges that patients with Covid-19 have faced include the experience of death anxiety, disease experience, uncertainty experience, emotion caused by quarantine, etc. These painful experiences can delay the patient's recovery (Rahmati Nejad, Yazdi, Khosravi, & Shahisadrabadi, 2020). The nurses responded similarly in the same situation. Based on research by Riocci et al. (2020), nurses were afraid to deal with cases of Covid-19 for their own safety and health, but after the deployment of standard methods, they were partly reassured of protecting themselves from the disease.  

In this study, the grounded theory method, as one of the important methods in qualitative research, was used. The approach used in this study was based on the view of Corbin and Strauss (2015). In this study, the participants were 22 of the nurses and patients hospitalized and improved at Razi Hospital and several other hospitals in Khuzestan province. The participants had sufficient information and knowledge about the subject under study. The sampling method in this study was purposeful; in addition, the sample selection in the process of data gathering, considering the degree of saturation of categories, was carried out in the direction of the qualities and dimensions.The main technique used to collect data in this study was in-depth interviews with each participant conducted around one and a half hours. First, by interviewing six of the participants, the main questions of the research were modified and adjusted. The modified questions were then used. The purpose of the interview was the to extract concepts, categories, and paradigms related to the study.Data analysis was based on five coding stages considering the 2015 version of the proposed grounded theory method of Corbin and Strauss. At the beginning of the coding phase, the data were analysed line by line and the initial concepts were extracted. In the next step, the code that was connected in terms of the concept and feature was organized by the centrality of the main categories. In the axial coding stage, they were related to the main categories. Selective coding was followed using the selection of concepts and issues that were considered effective in extracting the main category of the study.In this study, the authors used five research strategies to obtain the confidence level for the scientific approval of the study including observing colleagues, checking by contributors, long participation, continuous observation in the field of research, and deep and rich descriptions.

The appeared paradigm consists of three main dimensions of terms, interaction, and outcomes, which include the unknown nature of the virus, the interconnectedness of illness and the compression of shifts, a desire for accurate general understanding, successive iteration of decisive moments, anxiety and uncertainty. The interaction aspect includes feeling towards the end of power, disrupting the balance of relations and social relations, rethinking of employment and personality, anxiety, and uncertainty in facing the family. The outcome dimension includes the confluence of roles, acknowledging the high volume of tasks, no life and job security for nurses which were formed around a core paradigm called ‘two intertwined experiences influenced by the Coronavirus’.The research participants talked about the unique suffering that was strongly influenced by the unknown nature of the virus in the early days. The ignorance of the virus and the unfamiliarity of the world with its contagious and lethal power led to the anxiety and stress in the medical staff. They were concerned about themselves, their protection, their patients, their families and other citizens. Nurses in the infectious and isolated sections, although experienced in the use of protective equipment such as gowns, masks, and disinfectants, all indicated that new conditions lay ahead. With the increase in the number of patients and also the increase in the number of daily hospitalizations and the duration of hospitalization days, the infectious section became the busiest part of the hospital and unique experiences of having the fear and hope of nurses and patients were recorded. Both groups of patients and nurses longed for family visits, but more than ever believed in the unpleasant imposed aspect of protocols and chose to maintain distance.When conducting health care for covid patients, nurses are generally exposed to fluid and unstable situations; patients who do not have physically stable conditions and face a state of confusion with not responding to the nursing care. Nurses are always under pressure from people, hospital administrations, sick companions, patients, and other hospital staff. The nursing station can be considered a place of collision between a patient and a nurse; the place in which the companions unaware of a nurse's duties will seek medical care, impatience, not cooperating, labeling, urging for an answer, prejudice, complaint and judicial treatments, overcoming of emotions on the better judgment, disrespecting the nurse, having a bad attitude, etc. which will result in devaluing and far expectations.The findings of the World Health Organization show that the rapid outbreak of Covid-19 disease at the beginning of 2020 in the world put severe physical and psychological pressure on the medical staff of hospitals involved in the care of patients with Covid-19, to the extent that the risk of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) increased for this group. It is essential to increase the resilience of nurses and medical staff in their work, as well as to help patients who are seriously challenged with the disease, through strategic measures. Social support, as mentioned by Hou et al. (2020) can improve the mental health of medical staff through resilience, especially among middle-aged staff because resilience and mental health in this group have become poorer than the youth.

The present study examines generational considerations associated with demographic attitudes in Iran. The importance of such studies lies primarily on the increasing pattern of the process so-called ‘the transformation of demographic characteristics, which is also identified as one of the most important traits of contemporary societies. In this line, the main research question addressed in the present study is the whether demographic attitudes depend on generational belongings or not.  In other words, are we dealing with ‘generational divergence’ or ‘generational convergence’ with respect to demographic attitudes? Accordingly, the research findings presented and discussed in the present study aim to address this key research question.   

From the methodological perspective, the field of this analysis is Iran. It is worth mentioning that  Iran is globally well-recognized for this kind of study since it has witnessed one of the most spectacular demographic swings in the human history (McDonald, 2005; Foroutan, 2014, 2019) and has experienced fundamental socio-cultural changes and challenges which are also significantly associated with the generational transition from demographic perspectives. The empirical research findings of this analysis are based on a recently-conducted and nationally-representative survey in order to examine the patterns and determinants associated with generational aspects of demographic attitudes in Iran. The survey includes a sample of 5200 males and females aged 15 years old and over residing in both urban and rural areas of Ahvaz, Babolsar, Bojnord, Esfarayen, GonbadKavos, Gorgan, Hamadan, Kamyaran, Khoramabad, Mahmoudabad, Rasht, and Saghez.Moreover, demographic attitudes in the present study have been measured by five key components: childbearing desires, attitudes towards the current official population policy so-called pronatalism, attitudes towards emigration, divorce, and women’s age at first marriage. The term sex refers to male and female respondents, while gender attitude is measured on the basis of the respondents’ views on women’s employment outside the home. The present analysis shows four major age cohorts including individuals aged 15-24 years, 25-34 years, 35-49 years, and 50 years old and above. 

The results show two major patterns. First, there are substantial generational similarities and disparities in attitudes towards the demographic components including women’s age at marriage, pronatalism, childbearing preferences, divorce, and emigration. This means that on the one hand, the research findings support the three most visible observations across all generations: the two-child family is the most desirable childbearing pattern; both pro-natalism and divorce are rejected by the majority of all generational cohorts. On the other hand, when we go from a younger generational cohort towards an older cohort, we observe demographic outcomes including the greater desire for high childbearing, more positive attitudes towards women’s marriage at younger ages, and both emigration and divorce become less welcomed.Second, the similarities and disparities across the generational cohorts highlighted above are also significantly affected by such demographic determinants as gender, place of residence, and education. This means that males and rural residents are more likely to have stronger attitudes towards emigration and women’s marriage at younger ages and more negative attitudes towards divorce than females and urban residents. These male-female differentials apply to all generational cohorts. On the other hand, the magnitude of the effects of these determinants depends significantly on the kind of demographic characteristics. For instance, the determinant of gender has almost no significant effect on childbearing desires and pronatalism in such a way that both males and females in each generational cohort hold similar attitudes towards childbearing and pronatalism. However, there could be observed gender difference in attitudes towards women’s age at marriage in all generational cohorts; women’s marriage at younger ages is overwhelmingly more welcomed by males than by females.In sum, the results confirm two main conclusions they not only sit well with a combined version of cohort replacement theory and intra-cohort changes theory but also support the underlying fact that the demographic attitudes cannot be simply and merely explained through either generational gap or generational convergence.

Educational organizations play an important role in moving underdeveloped communities towards development. Having efficient and balanced educational organizations can help produce and expand other indicators of development. The undeniable impact of educational organizations, especially schools, on the development and political, economic, cultural and social integration, and improving the quality and effectiveness of these organizations has become an important issue for countries. Attention is paid to the quality of the global movement, and organizations that fail to do so are in danger of being destroyed. Organizational excellence is a strategic tool that helps organizations to achieve quality and competitive advantage in achieving their goals by identifying strengths and improvements to design and implement an ideal model for the growth and development of organizations. Educational organizations, especially schools, which are the major scientific institutions in the production of knowledge, skills, technology, and training of the future builders of the society should step forward as much as possible in the path of growth and excellence to become an organization. Leading companies move ahead of the competitive environment. Leadership styles are one of the factors affecting the organizational excellence of schools. Among the leadership styles, Level 5 leadership as a new perspective for 21st-century organizations can be the newest and at the same time the most practical model that puts organizations in an optimised position. Another prerequisite for the organizational excellence of schools is excellence in human resources. Teachers, as the most important human resource, provide the necessary ground for the progress, development, and in a more precise sense, excellence in schools. Comparing the current situation with the desired situation, as well as the success and continuous improvement of the country's schools with the schools of developed countries, indicate the lack of effectiveness and quality in our country's schools. Therefore, in order to improve the quality and compare the current situation with the optimal (ideal) situation of schools, the use of an organizational excellence model seems necessary. Therefore, the present study seeks to answer the question of how level five leadership and structural empowerment through the mediating role of teachers' psychological empowerment could lead to organizational excellence in schools.  

The present descriptive-correlational study is based on an applied purpose. The statistical population of the study was 16264 primary school teachers in Fars province. Considering the research population, the random sampling method of relative classes and Cochran's formula (at alpha level 0.05; error value 0.05 and p and q ratio equal to 0.5) was used, so the statistical sample size of 375 teachers was selected. To collect the data, four questionnaires of Cham Asmani (2007), Structural Empowerment of Kordanij, Bakhshizadeh and Fatholahi (2015), Psychological Empowerment of Spritzer and Mishra (1995), and Organizational Excellence of Amarloo (2017) were used. The Cronbach's alpha coefficients of the questionnaires were 0.96, 0.93, 0.94, and 0.91, respectively. 

In today's world, despite the rapid pace of change and transformation in various fields of education, economic, social, political, etc., every organization needs to move and adapt to changes and gradual improvement for survival and stability. Education, along with other institutions, according to its important and valuable mission, needs measures to be added to its agenda including the organization's attention to the organizational excellence of schools. In this regard, the results showed that Level Five Leadership has a direct, positive, and significant relationship at the level of 0.05 with psychological empowerment and organizational excellence of schools. Level 5 leadership has an indirect, positive, and significant relationship with the organizational excellence of schools through psychological empowerment at the level of 0.05. The structural empowerment variable has a direct, positive, and significant relationship at the level of 0.05 with psychological empowerment and organizational excellence of schools. Structural empowerment through psychological empowerment has an indirect, positive, and significant relationship at the level of 0.05 with the organizational excellence of schools. In order to continuously improve the organizational excellence of schools, it is suggested that education officials, in addition to selecting level five leaders for school management, provide teachers with a sense of competence, independence, and influence school affairs by delegating authority and empowering teachers in the formal school structure.

Today, research on people's attitudes towards money and its effects on individual and social life has more been taken into consideration. The concept of attitude towards money evaluates different aspects and multi-dimensional structures of money meanings and indicates a value people give to money and consider money an important part of their life (Marwah & Anim, 2015). Studying the attitude towards money is important because it requires making decisions about money and financial behaviors (Henchoz et al., 2019). People in daily life always deal with money. Money changes everything; some people adjust their life level, expectations, tastes, preferences, and consumption based on their money. Money as a useful tool in satisfying psychological and environmental needs motivates an individual to change his/her life direction by doing acts actively. Therefore, money can be seen as an efficient stimulus for internal motivations (Bandura et al., 2011). Attitudes in this study are defined as the meanings, feelings, and beliefs that individuals attach to money. Money attitudes are acquired through socialization and are established early in childhood (Tang et al. 2005).  The present study aimed to investigate the effects of dimensions of monetary ethics (budget, evil, equity, success, and motivation) on life satisfaction.  

The present research is applied and descriptive-correlational in terms of purpose and method. The statistical population consisted of all scientific board members and university employees including 815 participants in the 2018-2019 academic year. Since the population size of professors (54%) and employees (46%) were not identical, 261 were selected based on the Cochran sampling formula using the stratified random sampling method fit to size (in terms of professors and employees). Then, 300 questionnaires were distributed. Among the returned questionnaires, only 220 were usable (125 professors and 95 employees). The questionnaires consisted of two parts of questions: demographic questions and professional questions. To evaluate life satisfaction, the SWLS measure (Diener et al., 1985) was used. To assess attitudes towards money, the Money Ethic Scale (Tang, Luna-Arocas, & Whiteside, 1997) was used. The obtained data were analyzed using SPSS24 and Pls2 statistical software. 

The results of the present study showed that the motivation factor with a high score predicts changes in life satisfaction in both groups: in other words, people who are more motivated by money are more satisfied with their lives. The coefficients of the effect of motivation dimension for professors and employees’ life satisfaction were 0.652 and 0.662, respectively. For employees, in addition to the motivation factor, the equity factor (0.173) and the success factor (-0.153) were predictors of life satisfaction, so that the success factor with a high score caused less life satisfaction and the justice factor with a high score caused more satisfaction with life.The results of the study for both groups (professors and employees) are compatible with previous results. For example, the results of a study by Tang, Luna-Arocas, and Whiteside’s (2002) indicate that people who budget their money more and have higher monetary tend to have high self-esteem and more satisfaction with their lives. Baker and Hagedorn’s (2008) study results indicated that people who had lower scores in the power factor and achievement and higher scores in the budgeting factor had more satisfaction with their lives. Jhang’s (2018) study indicated that people who saw money as the power symbol had less satisfaction with their lives while a positive relationship with life satisfaction was found for the motivation factor. Based on previous research, it can be concluded that different understandings of the importance of money and monetary attitudes could have a different effects on life satisfaction.The results of the present study could have implications for researchers and practitioners in the fields of  psychology, human and organizational relationships, and managements. For example, to enhance employee’s motivation and understand factors affecting it, managers have an interest in reducing work costs and increasing the employee’s productivity. The results can also guide employees in providing a basis for making business decisions in organizations and for everyday life in the society. Considering the significance  of the topic and the lack of sufficient research inside the country, it is recommended to do wider studies on this issue. It is also recommended to use financial counselors and trainers to teach applications to help people and families to improve their financial satisfaction. Life satisfaction could lead to improving intelligence, capability, motivation, and increasing productivity.

In Noorabad City, a county of Lorestan Province, the individuals’ systems of value, family structures, and marital relations have faced some changes along with the economic changes, increasing levels of education, expanding mass communication, enhancing migration from rural to urban areas, and augmenting women's participation in the society. When choosing a spouse, there is usually more emphasis on the couple’s similarities in terms of age, education, economy, and social activities. However, the system of culture and values as an underlying structure determines how couples can deal with their various issues of married life. In this regard, this article assessed the level of marital satisfaction based on the couples’ value systems in Noorabad City in Lorestan Province.

The present study was a quantitative, applied, and comparative research in terms of method, purpose, and analysis, and a survey in terms of implementation, respectively. For data collection, two questionnaires, including Schwartz Couples Value Scale and ENRICH Marital Satisfaction Questionnaire were used. The statistical population of this study consisted of couples in Noorabad City. The sample size was 200 couples, who were selected by multi-stage cluster sampling. For data analysis, the table of frequency distribution, indices of mean and standard deviation, t-test of two dependent groups, and analysis of variance were utilized.

 Discussion of Results & Conclusions 

The results showed that the women’s average score based on all aspects of their value system was higher than the men’s. The most and least differences between the couples’ value systems were related to the components of religion, independence, and power and those of moral characteristics and conformity, respectively. Therefore, it could be concluded that their value systems in Noorabad City were different. The men's value system was different in terms of age, but the couples' value systems were not significantly different in terms of education. The men’s score of marital satisfaction was higher than the women’s. The biggest and smallest differences between the couples' levels of satisfaction were related to the issues of spouse's personality, leisure time, children, and sex and the issue of financial supervision, respectively. The men and women were more satisfied with the issues of leisure time, personality, and ideological orientation and those of marital relationships, personality, and financial supervision, respectively. Marital satisfaction had a significant relationship with the men's levels of education, women's jobs, and family economic status. Their marital satisfaction was higher when the couples agreed on a value system. The correlation coefficients also revealed that an increase in the men's value system score based on the personal and transpersonal dimensions was correlated with an increase in the women's marital satisfaction and an increase in the women's value system score based on the personal dimension was correlated with an increase and decrease in the men's and women's satisfaction, respectively. Although the women’s average value system was higher than the men’s, this led to a disagreement in their value systems and marital dissatisfaction. In other words, acquisition of such value traits as independence, excitement, power, and success in increasing women's levels of education and employment in the society and emphasis on making a developmental society in the context and structure of Iranian society resulted in the women’s marital incompatibility. In general, it could be said that subjective (homogeneity in the value system) compared to objective (homogeneity in education, age, job, etc.) matching had a more important role in marital satisfaction. In other words, job, education, and social status did not necessarily equate to the value system of marriage and marital satisfaction. According to the findings, even the women’s higher average value system did not lead to marital adjustment.